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Upland Tundra

Maps and Photos of upland tundra range type
 

Upland Tundra Climatic Overview

Cold winter temperatures and cool summer temperatures resulting in an annual mean temperature of -2.8°C (27°F) characterize the upland tundra, also known as alpine tundra. These conditions coupled with low precipitation levels at an annual mean of 324.6 mm (12.8 in.) (Western Regional Climate Center) and a near constant wind have a dramatic effect on vegetative growth. The highest period of precipitation occurs in the summer when mean temperatures exceed 19°C (66.2°F). This allows for surface soils to thaw enabling limited plant growth. Plant growth affects soil formation when plants hold soil in place. Dead plants also decompose forming the organic matter in soil, plus they provide vital soil nutrients. Plant decomposition is, however, seriously restricted by the cold temperatures which lock up the water supply in snow or ice, and stop or severely slow the chemical and biological aspects of soil formation.

Upland Tundra Soils

Soils of the alpine tundra vary greatly based on their specific location.  They are generally shallow, not well developed, and consist of bedrocks interspersed between the bare rocks and rubbles.  Alpine tundra soils are from the Gelisols order.  Gelisols is derived from the Greek word gelid which means very cold. (Brady and Weil 2004)  Gelisols have permafrost with in two meters of the surface (University of Idaho (a)) and consist of three suborders.  Histels are the first of the three suborders and they have large quantities of organic matter in them. (University of Idaho (b))   The amount of organic matter is large because organic material decomposes very slowly in the absence of warmth and moisture because of reduced chemical and biological activity.  The alpine tundra is cold with its water frozen for a large part of the year.  Histosols, soil that contains more then 20% organic matter, can occur in the tundra environment. (Arizona State University)  Turbels are the second suborder and they show evidence of extensive mixing by frost action, which is called cryoturbation. Cryoturbation moves soil material resulting in broken and convoluted soil horizons. (Brady and Weil 2004) The third and final suborder of Gelisols is made up of all other Gelisols and are called Orthels. (University of Idaho (b))  Gelisols present humans with a wide array of construction problems. Many of the Histels are wet and do not provide enough bearing strength to support roadways or building foundations (Brady and Weil 2004).   If the permafrost thaws structures built over it often shift resulting in damage.

Vegetative Community of the Upland Tundra Range Type

Alpine tundra is home to no more then 200-300 species of plants (Holechek, 2004). The plants adapted to these conditions are perennial grasses, sedges, forbs, low-growing shrubs and with substantial amounts of lichens and mosses. Many of them are also mat (cushion) plants, and/or develop short hairs covering their stems bodies (Viereck and Little, 1972). The matted plants grow close to the ground creating their own livable microclimate (National Park Service).

Far East Geological Institute suggests on their website that the representative genera in this climate are:

• Lichens - Cladonia, Cetraria, Alectoria, Cetrarta, Parmelia.
• Mosses - Selaginella, Aulocomnium, Polytrichum, Rhytidium, Rhacomitrium, Dicranum.
• Shrubs - Betula spp. (birches), Cassiope spp (Mountainheathers), Rhododendron spp, Salix spp (Willow family, Salicaceae), Empetrum nigrum (Crowberry), Vaccinium uliginosim (Blueberries).
• Grasses - Carex spp, Luzula spp, Saussurea kitamurna, Bistorta vivipara, Aconutum,
  Cacalia, Saussurea, Angelica.
• Forbs - Dryas octopetala (Alpine avens), Polygonum viviparum (Alpine Bistort), Trifolium pretense (Dwarf clover), Lidia obtusiloba (Alpine sandwort), S. virginiensis (Saxifrage), Eritrichium nanum (Alpine Forget-Me-Not).

Vegetation can be influenced by the depth of snow. Deep, late-melting snow-beds are occupied by Black Alpine Sedge communities. Moderate snowbed communities typically contain dwarf shrub heath tundra that is dominated by heathers, mountain heathers, and grouseberry. Shallow snow areas on ridge tops and other exposed sites typically contain communities dominated by white mountain avens, snow willow and moss campion, or kobresia. Diverse, colorful herb meadows occur in moist sites below melting snow banks or along streams. Highest elevation communities are composed mainly of lichens on rocks and shallow soil, according to Heritage Community Foundation (2001).

Perhaps one of the most important organisms inhabiting the harsh alpine tundra is the lichen. Lichen consists of a specific alga and a specific fungus in a symbiotic relationship that makes them act like a single plant. Most are composed of fungal filaments with green alga or cyanobacterium living between them. (University of California Berkeley).   Their ability to absorb water and nutrients directly into their cells allow them to survive without a vascular system including roots. They take on three distinct forms crustose (crust like), foliose (leaf like), and fruticose (stalk like). The fruticose lichen commonly called reindeer lichen plays an important part in the diet of many tundra herbivores. (Radford University).  As the common name, reindeer lichen implies reindeer do eat lichen as do their wild relatives, caribou.

Despite their small size the plants of the tundra put on a stunning display during the short summer season. They also provide nutrients for many alpine dwelling animal species.

Current Uses of the Upland Tundra

Despite the miserable weather which frequents Alaska’s upland tundra (MacMillan, 2001), thousands of people go there to enjoy themselves. Many even spend thousands of dollars for the cold wet experience that awaits the alpine tundra hunter.  Through the use of a guide or just a pilot, people from many parts of the world have unparalleled experiences above Alaska’s tree line.

A few thousand nonresident hunters come for the thrill of hunting the barren ground Caribou (Rangifer tarandus), (Valkenburg, 1999). Numerous other hunters pursue the massive palmated antlers of the Alaskan Yukon Moose (Alces alces).

The more adventurous come for the thrill of hunting some of Alaska’s most feared creatures, the bear. Regardless of which species you choose the fierce Brown/Grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) or the more unpredictable Black Bear (Ursus americanus), (Johnson, 1996), you will have an experience few people ever experience. What one might ask do all these animals find so alluring about this forbidding landscape? The answers food, comfort and security.

The bears are here for the berries and ground squirrels (Spermophilus parryii). Moose like the alpine tundra for its lack of trees to interfere with their movements, and the availability of tender browse from the shrubs.  The caribou are here for one of their favorite foods, lichen.

All the animals like the cool breeze that helps keep the insects at bay. The ability to spot threats at great distances provides an extra measure of security for all the species that frequent here.

Humans have hunted these animals here for thousands of years and will continue to do so as long as the animals continue to inhabit this treeless environment. Some hunt for the meat to provide for winter stores, while others hunt for the trophies associated with hunts of this magnitude. They are happy to pay large amounts of money to do it, which provides an annual source of income for many people living near the alpine tundra.

Future Concerns

The traditional method of hunting these magnificent animals in such breathtaking country is threatened. If global climate change continues it could threaten not just the animal’s habits but, the very alpine tundra habitat they rely on. As temperatures continue to warm many believe that the trees will grow higher and higher up the mountain sides (Wilmking et al., 2004).  If this were to happen several factors would eliminate the alpine tundra as we know it. Instead of open spaces there could be stands of forest (Elliott and Baker 2004).

No longer could the bears find the massive amounts of blueberries under a canopy of trees. They simply won’t grow as well in the shade of trees. The ground squirrel will be replaced by red squirrels (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) which climb trees to escape danger. These things alone would leave the bears looking for sustenance in other areas.

Moose would find it difficult to maneuver massive antlers tender from new growth around the trees. They would experience a decrease in available browse as trees replace shrubs.

The magnificent caribou would find a decreasing amount of lichen under the canopy of trees. This would force them to search elsewhere for their favorite meal. The open spaces which currently provide for the cool breeze and unlimited view would be replaced by forest.

Even if none of these things forced the wildlife to leave the area the trees would prohibit man from hunting the area as he has for time immemorial. He could no longer spot game from afar and plan to stalk or intercept it as he does today. This would result in a decrease in hunter success which in turn would reduce the willingness of clients to pay for the hunting opportunities. This could have a serious economic impact in urban and rural areas alike since the urban areas provide enroot services.

To make matters even worse the decrease in hunting success could have a far reaching effect on the ability of Alaskans to harvest the 22,000 caribou they currently take as a food source each year, Valkenburg, (1999).

Two studies released in 2004 indicate that perhaps the future is not all gloom and doom. Wilmking et al. report that under some temperature regimes growth may actually be reduced in White Spruce (Picea glauca(Moench (Voss)) . The other 2004 study by Ganache and Payette indicates that upward expansion of the tree line may be delayed due to suppressed height growth of Black Spruce (Picea mariana).

With these new studies it appears that additional research will be required before we can predict the demise of Alaska’s alpine tundra and the magnificent hunting opportunities that accompany its wide open spaces.

By Jim Hazlett
(editorial revision by John Kawula)

References

Climate

Western Regional Climate Center. n.d. Climate of Alaska. [On-line] Available http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/narratives/ALASKA.htm. 10 Oct. 2004.

Soils

Brady, N. and R.Weil 2004. Elements of the nature and properties of soils 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Arizona State University. Periglacial notes. [Online] Available from http://alliance.la.asu.edu/gph211/periglacialnotes.html 16 Oct. 2004.

University of Idaho (a) The twelve soil orders, soil taxonomy, Gelisols. [Online] Available from http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/gelisols.htm 17 Oct. 2004.

University of Idaho (b) The twelve soil orders, soil taxonomy, Gelisols, suborders. [Online] Available from http://soils.ag.uidaho.edu/soilorders/gelisols%20suborders.htm 17 Oct. 2004.

Vegetation

Far East Geological Institute, Alpine Vegetation, [Online] Available from http://www.fegi.ru/prim/plant/rast1.htm 19 Nov. 2004.

Heritage Community Foundation, (2001) The Alpine Vegetation, [Online] Available from http://collections.ic.gc.ca/abnature/mountains/alpineveg.htm 17 Oct. 2004.

Holechek, J.L. (2004) Range Management: Principles and Practices, 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

National Park Service. 1997. Denali National Park information. [Online] Available from http://www.denali.national-park.com/info.htm 16 Oct. 2004.

Radford University. Tundra illustrations. [Online] Available from http://www.runet.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/tundra/tunill.html 17 Oct. 2004.

University of California Berkeley. Introduction to lichens an alliance between kingdoms. [Online] Available from http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/lichens/lichens.html 17 Oct. 2004.

Viereck, A.L. and E.L. Little. (1972) Alaska Trees and Shrubs, Agriculture Handbook No. 410, Washington D.C., United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

Current Uses

Gamache, I. and S. Payette. 2004. Height growth response of tree line black spruce to recent climate warming across the forest-tundra of eastern Canada. Journal of Ecology 92 (5): 835-845.

Johnson, D.M. 1996. A week in Alaska hunting guide camp [Online] Available from http://www.outdoorsdirectory.com/magazine/Alaska_hunting_camp.htm 8 Dec. 2004.

MacMillian, J. 2001. Alaska moose and caribou drop camp journal [Online] Available from http://www.outdoorsdirectory.com/magazine/alaska_hunting_drop_camp.htm 8 Dec. 2004.

Valkenburg, P. 1999.Caribou: Wildlife notebook series. Alaska Department of Fish and Game. [Online] Available from http://www.adfg.state.ak.us/pubs/notebook/biggame/caribou.php 8 Dec. 2004.

Future Concerns

Elliott, G. and W. Baker. 2004.Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) at treeline: a century of change in the San Juan Mountains, Colorado, USA. Journal of Biogeography 31 (5): 733-745. (Abstr.)

Wilmking, M., G. Juday, V. Barber, and H. Zald 2004. Recent climate warming forces contrasting growth responses of white spruce at treeline in Alaska through temperature thresholds. Global Change Biology 10 (10): 1724-1736.