Alaskans and the Year 3000 Bug
Nitrogen Fixing Trees in Community Development
Lack of Tree Seedlings - What are the Alternatives?
Fruit Trees for Interior Alaskan Landscapes
Fruit Tree Research and Varietal Testing in the Interior - An interview conducted by Bob Wheeler
Factors that Influence Sap Flow in Paper Birch
Forest Products Workshop Features Value-Added Products and Technology Innovation
I am sure most of you have in one way or another been asked if you are prepared for the year 2000 computer malfunctions. It is reassuring that there are those that are pursuing the potential problems with the turn of the millennium with our best interest in mind. Reviews of important events over the past 100 years and last 1,000 years are being presented in the media, and it seems timely that we are prompted to ponder the course of human events during our life times and the condition of our environment. It seems that our society is increasingly being challenged to provide and utilize instant information for businesses and personal use. For many of us, our ability to plan is influenced by a need for short term planning and crisis avoidance. Our ability to look into the future remains limited and risky.
However, forestry as a profession and as practiced by landowners and managers is typically a long-term affair on human terms. While pondering possible implications of the Y2K bug and forestry, I shifted my focus to pondering the challenge of imagining the world with all its resources and people as it will exist at the next millennium. What picture of the world comes to your mind for the year 3000? Will the last week of June 3000 be high time to head to the Gulkana for Kings? Will we find the village of Fort Yukon no longer on the banks of the Yukon? Will there be forest lands in Alaska under intensive management for fiber production?
Some things I venture will not change with 1,000 years of biological and social evolution and that includes a demand for forest products. Having taught in the eastern highlands of Ethiopia for one year and having traveled and worked in over 40 countries, I feel it is incumbent upon me on the verge of this new millennium to review how forestry is seen in many developing countries and the hope it provides for the year 3000. I gave a presentation titled "Nitrogen Fixing Trees and Community Development" at the 1989 National Convention of the Society of American Foresters. Being concerned about worldwide starvation, social and political unrest, inequities in resource allocations and their consequences to humans as reflected in civil unrest and war, it should be apparent that sustainable management of the world's forestry resources will have great impact on the future and the state of the world in the year 3000.
If we cannot manage the world's forest resources to meet our combined global consumptive needs within the framework of the available commercial forest land and our economic capabilities and needs, 1,000 years of conservation may not have prevented a host of catastrophic events for humanity, the state of our natural resources, and the productivity of the land.
Please read the following discussion and consider forestry as it is to the majority of the people on this earth in 1999 and ponder what it could be in the year 3000.
by James Chamberlain, former regional manager of the Nitrogen Fixing Tree Association, Hawaii, and Bob Wheeler
Historical Perspective
The prevailing image about tropical forestry at the Fourth World Forestry Congress in 1954 can be best summarized by large scale plantations of straight stemmed fast growing exotics. Eucalyptus, it was declared, often produce more timber than indigenous species and are of great importance from an industrial and economic standpoint.
Rethinking of International Forestry
In the 1970s international development agencies, the forestry community and policy makers began reconsidering the goals and objectives of forest development projects. Forestry was being found as a key to not only national but regional development and that through proper management forestry affords the opportunity for local communities to improve their quality of living. A shift had begun from plantation forestry solely for commercial products to planting trees for the betterment of rural communities. In 1978 the Eighth World Forestry Congress, held in Jakarta, Indonesia, focused on "Forestry for the People." The Congress recognized the challenge to forestry originating from the impact of a large and expanding population (estimated at 200 million) on the forests and forest lands and the rapidly growing demands for products from these resources.
That same year the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization published "Forestry for Local Community Development." In the Foreword the asssistant director general stated that this new people-oriented policy was adopted by the FAO to raise the standard of living of rural populations and to involve this group in decisions affecting their lives and use of resources.
The "World Bank Forestry Sector Policy Paper" of
1987 recommended that lending practices in the
forestry
sector be refocused similar to that adopted by
agriculture and rural development. At least 60 percent of
forestry lending was to be directed to
environmental protection and rural afforestation programs to
supply the basic needs of local populations for
fodder, fuelwood, poles, and other forest products.
Forestry for Community Development
Community development is the process by which villages evolve from their current level of prosperity to a position of more or better access to resources. Ideally, that process provides for the fundamental needs of life including food, shelter, clothing, and water. It is these resources that are the essentials of a healthy and productive life.
To obtain these necessities, often, it is essential to realize other products or resources as well. To sustain food production, people need fertile soils. This may demand adding fertilizers or protecting fields from soil erosion or nutrient loss. Without some form of preparation, many foods are indigestible. Woodfuel or other energy sources are needed to prepare these foods for consumption. Wood is the material used most often for shelter and warmth. Trees planted are also managed as hedges to stop erosion and improve soil fertility. They also may be planted along farm borders for future income from timber sales.
Silviculture for Community Development
Community forestry is an array of silvicultural treatments many of which are new to foresters. Social as well as biological aspects must be considered. In selecting species one must weigh peoples' wants with ecological parameters. It is necessary to delve even deeper into the social aspects - cultural norms and feelings towards species must be respected. Possible competition between crops and trees will affect silviculture prescriptions. Planting densities, spacing, cutting regimes and other management practices are different than those typically used in forestry. Management prescriptions for community forestry are complex socially as well as biologically.
Agroforestry has become the most popular management system for community development. Fundamentally, agroforestry is the practice of growing trees and crops on the same land. The system considers any niche, no matter how small, within the land use system for tree planting. Trees and crops may be grown simultaneously as in alley cropping or sequentially as in planting trees to improve fallows.
Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Community Development
Nitrogen Fixing Trees (NFTs) are unique in their ability to convert atmospheric nitrogen into a usable product - organic fertilizer. The fixation of nitrogen or incorporation of nitrogenous compounds into a plant derived from atmospheric nitrogen is facilitated by a symbiosis between the tree and microorganisms living within the roots. Two genera are involved in this process, the bacterial genus Rhizobium or the fungal genus Frankia. Not all Rhizobium or Frankia are equally effective at fixing nitrogen and some are species specific.
In all about 650 tree species are known to fix nitrogen. Nine families share this virtue. Of these families, the Leguminosae, or Pea family, has the largest number with this ability. Three sub-families, each differing in the proportion of members that fix, make up this family. Of the 1900 species in the Caesalpinoideae sub-family 23 percent of those tested fix nitrogen. In the Mimosoideae sub-family (2800 members), 90 percent of tested species have proved positive for nitrogen fixation. The Papilionoideae sub-family, with an estimated 12,300 species, represents that largest group that can fix nitrogen. Of those tested 97 percent fix nitrogen. Within the leguminosae family alone there is potential to find over 14,500 species (not all trees) that fix nitrogen.
Nitrogen fixing trees are adapted to a broad range of environments and grow naturally throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. The ability to fix nitrogen enhances their survival on poor or disturbed soils. Consequently some are planted to stabilize sand dunes and reclaim abandoned strip mining lands.
Typically, NFTs are pioneer species with deep penetrating root systems that reach nutrients leached from the topsoil. Often, they are found to exhibit rapid juvenile growth, early sexual maturity, and are self fertile. Varieties of NFTs have been found to fix more than 500 kg of nitrogen per hectare annually.
NFTs also produce many of the products needed by rural populations. Most rural households rely on wood in preparing food and heating their homes. Their homes are typically made from wood or other local forest products. Many households raise cattle, goats or other livestock for home consumption or sale. Farmers need expensive fertilizers to increase crop production but many are unable to afford this expensive commodity. Everyone needs nutritious food stuffs for a healthy productive life. NFTs provide products to fulfill these needs: fuelwood, construction materials, fodder, fertilizer, food, and other products and values.
Species Selection
Utilizing NFTs in community forestry first involves identifying desirable traits. If the major demand from the community is for fuelwood, species are selected with high calorific value, small multiple stems and the ability to coppice. For fodder, select species with high protein and digestible leaves with low tannins or toxins. In general fodder trees have small often compound leaves and not thick leathery leaves such as Acacia mangium. For construction it is important to consider wood qualities. A species that resists wood damaging pests is preferable as is a wood that is easily worked. The genus Casuarina produces favorable poles and round wood products that are highly resistant to salt water and soil moisture. For fertilizer, green manure, trees with small leaves that decompose rapidly, are preferred. But if there is a need for weed control and green manure, trees with small leaves are planted along with trees having thick leathery leaves. In this way leaves that decompose rapidly enrich the soils while those that decompose slower preserve valuable soil moisture.
The broad range of NFTs has created a complex array of species from which selection decisions are made to maximize production. Many nitrogen fixing trees can be managed for multiple products. Table 1 lists important NFT genera and their contributions to community needs. To better meet all needs, several species may be incorporated into a system.
Table 1. Uses of NFTs in community forestry
|
Nitrogen Fixing Trees |
Timber
|
Fuel-wood
|
Soil Stability |
Green Manure
|
Wind-break
|
Support & Shade |
Fodder
|
Food
|
Other
|
| Acacia |
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
| Albizia |
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
| Calliandra |
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
| Casuarina |
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
| Dalbergia |
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
| Enterolobim |
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
| Erythrina |
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
| Gliricidia |
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
|
| Inga |
-
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
| Intsia |
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
| Leucaena |
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
| Mimosa |
-
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
| Pithecellobim |
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
| Prosopis |
x
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
| Pterocarpus |
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
x
|
-
|
|
| Robinia |
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
-
|
-
|
| Sesbania |
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
x
|
x
|
x
|
-
|
Forest Planting Systems and Cultural Treatments
Whereas traditional forestry involves large continuous blocks of trees, forestry for community development may entail planting of single trees. Plantations are typically pruned to one or two log lengths while many silviculture treatments for communities mandate pruning trees to a height of one meter. Spacing of trees varies as well. When planting trees to stop erosion of a community's hillsides, trees are spaced no farther apart than the length of a pencil. Community foresters also consider the effect trees have on adjacent crops. It is essential that benefits of tree planting surpass the costs.Understanding these nuances, the community forester is challenged to find places within the community land use system to plant trees.
There are many alternative planting schemes from which to choose when considering tree planting for community development. Examples include windbreaks, living fences, fodder banks, hedgerow intercropping, and woodlots. There are traditional designs such as home gardens that emulate natural forests. There are "new" systems such as alley cropping that are suitable for field crops. Complex designs such as found in Bali, Indonesia, use Gliricidia sepium as a living fence and fodder hedge surrounding a crop field. Within this field the NFT Sesbania grandifloria is interplanted for shade, soil stability, green manure, and human food. The system also improves crop yields.
Fundamentally, there are two major types of planting systems to select from when selecting where and when to plant trees: 1) simultaneously with the crops or 2) in sequence with the crops. With the first most of the land is left in production and the trees are a supplementary product. With the second choice land is taken out of production to plant trees, or trees are planted while the land is fallow.
Within the cropping system farm borders may hold the greatest potential and least risk for tree planting. Trees planted in this manner, if managed properly, have little adverse affect on adjacent crops. Shading of crops can be minimized by wide spacing of the trees. Trees planted as windbreaks on farm boarders protect crops and enhance soil water retention. Casuarina, with straight strong stems and full canopy, are favored for windbreaks. Other genera with desirable traits for windbreaks include Acacia, Dalbergia, and Parkia. Planting along farm borders is also an excellent way for a farmer to grow timber trees and invest in the future. Trees spaced far apart can be left to grow until maturity.
Living fences are another important system for planting trees with crops. Fences typically protect areas from intruders or increase privacy. To stop large animals from invading gardens, the genera of choice usually are thorny. Trees are planted close producing a thick barrier. Lateral branches that over hang the fields or living space are removed. Prime examples for protection fences are the genera Acacia, Pithecellobium, and Prosopis. For privacy other genera are selected - Erythrina and Casuarina produce tall bushy barriers. In Costa Rica, Gliricidia sepium are propagated as living fences as cut branches woven between the stems form a dense barrier. The stems are pollarded at head height for fodder and green manure.
Hedgerows can be planted in crop fields for erosion control and soil amelioration. They also produce supplementary fuelwood. Hedgerows are integrated in crop fields and compete with the crops for light and water. To reduce competition hedges are pruned low and fields are plowed close to the trees to trim surface roots. For best results hedges are allowed to grow to about three meters or until well established. They are then cut back to a half meter and pruned as needed to retain this height. Foliage is placed on top the soil as a mulch or integrated into the topsoil for added fertilizer. When desired leaves are removed and fed to animals. Large stems provide fuelwood. Sloping Agricultural Land Technology (SALT), using hedges of Leucaena and Gliricidia, is an example of this type of application in the Philippines.
In some land use systems NFTs are planted in wide rows or randomly within fields. Trees planted in this manner have little adverse affect on the overall crop yields. Individual trees shade crops in the immediate vicinity, but overall yields may be improved. In Africa a nitrogen fixing tree is planted amongst crops during the rainy season. Crops benefit from the added organic matter and nitrogen. Trees can be managed for timber production or other long-term investment products.
Another possible application of NFTs in community development is for improving pastures and livestock production. Trees can be clustered in small groves or interspersed throughout the field. Planted in clusters, trees become "living barns" providing shelter and source of fodder. Scattered in the fields, trees are primarily managed for timber production. The same trees produce additional fodder for livestock. Wide spacing of trees is important to keep the productivity of grasses high.
Planting trees in sequence with crops is more feasible when land pressures are low and communities are less dependent on the land for subsistence. Sequential planting also is appropriate when cultural practices permit it. Many cultures traditionally remove land from production when crop yields begin to decline.
With low population pressures, traditional fallow periods were long enough to rejuvenate the soils. With heavy land pressures, fallow periods and soil fertility have decreased. Nitrogen fixing trees planted during fallow periods help rebuild soils. In the central part of the Philippines, hillsides resemble checkerboards as farmers rotate corn and tobacco with plantings of Leucaena to improve the soils. Trees are planted in blocks on the contours. When fields are active, trees are kept cut back to stump height and help stabilize soil movement. During the fallow they are left to grow and shed their nutrient rich leaves.
Where land is available, trees can be planted in woodlots. The primary reasons for planting trees in blocks is for fuelwood or timber. Silvicultural treatments for block plantings are similar to traditional techniques. For timber production trees are initially planted close together. As the stand matures, it is thinned to release superior trees. Inferior trees are removed and used for fuelwood or girdled and left to die in the stand.
When blocks are planted for fuelwood, trees are planted very close for maximum stem production. Long term sustainable yields of block plantings may be obtained from interplanting nitrogen fixing trees with non-nitrogen fixing trees. In Hawaii, six-year-old stands of 50 percent Eucalyptus grandis and 50 percent Paraserianthes falcataria produced greater yields than monocultures of either species.
Summary
In general forestry programs in developing countries supported by aid agencies have shifted from planting for industrial purposes toward meeting the needs of rural communities. This is a result of the growing concern that the global population explosion has a deleterious effect on the environment as reflected by increased deforestation, massive soil loss, decreasing crop yields, and environmental degradation. It also reflects the general concern to improve the living conditions of the resource poor, particularly to meet their most basic needs.
Species selection for community development has not kept pace with the shift of forestry programs. Until recently the predominant species selected for community forestry were those planted for large scale plantations. Gradually species selected for community forestry are reflecting qualities desired by the recipients: nutrient rich foliage for fodder and fertilizer, supplementary food products for human consumption, domestic energy production, and local construction.
Nitrogen fixing trees have great potential for meeting community resource needs. The great diversity of tree species that fix nitrogen give the land manager choices of species that meet both environmental and social demands. The forester has many places with the community land use systems to plant nitrogen fixing trees which can be planted either concurrently or in sequence with crops. Trees planted simultaneously are managed to reduce competition with the crops. Planted in this manner they provide additional fodder or fuelwood. They can be planted along farm borders as windbreaks or for timber production. NFTs can also be widely spaced throughout fields to produce poles and other products. It has been shown that NFTs can, in some situations, double crop yields.
Planted in succession, NFTs become the major crop producing large quantities of fuelwood and/or fodder and can facilitate rehabilitation of degraded sites. Land is either removed from agricultural production to grow trees or is planted when cultural practices permit. In the former situation trees are typically planted in woodlots to leave land fallow when crop yields begin to decline. NFTs planted during the fallow period improve soil fertility and shorten the time land is out of production.
Selecting species and plantation systems for community forestry is a challenge new to many foresters. The practitioner must consider all places within the land use system for potential tree planting. Biological as well as socio-economic aspects are important considerations in community forestry. Nitrogen fixing trees have the potential to meet the demands of the environment as well as the community especially in tropical rural regions of the world where rapid population increase has caused a great imbalance between the availability of local supplies and their needs. This is the nature of our international struggle to provide assistance and the challenge to the forestry profession.
by Bob Wheeler
I recently spoke with Patricia Joyner, information and education coordinator with the Alaska Urban and Community Forestry Program, Division of Forestry - Anchorage, about the problems we are encountering with local demands for tree seedlings for private and public lands. We found that we both have similar experiences.
During the spring the Alaska Cooperative Extension typically receives several calls from individual land owners and communities about where they can acquire seedlings for tree planting. There are currently, within the state, few alternatives available to acquire seedlings from locally acquired seed especially if numbers larger than a few hundred trees are needed. This problem has resulted partly as a result of the closure of the state Tree Nursery several years ago. Although the nursery was considered to not be cost effective in providing seedlings at reasonable prices, its closure has left a void of locally grown and adapted seedlings that has not been fully filled by local commercial nurseries. Out-of-state nurseries can be contracted to grow seedlings but generally are not growing speculation seedlings for sale within the state due to the limited demand for seedlings of Alaskan sources.
One option for meeting the needs of communities interested in planting trees on public property has been the National Tree Trust. It provides seedlings for planting on public lands and requires that the project be implemented by volunteers, that the trees are not to be sold, that their care is to be monitored and reported for two years and the sponsors be recognized. The forms to qualify are relatively simple to complete and is a service that requires two years from the initial sign-up to the delivery of the seedlings. Contact Patricia Joyner in Anchorage at (907) 269-8465 if you would like more information about this program.
Patricia also indicates that there are presently some surplus seedlings of white spruce and paper birch available to communities that might immediately have a need for them. (Potentially up to 5,000 seedlings of each species are available.)
There are some private nurseries around Alaska that have small quantities of potted or transplanted seedlings available for sale. Another alternative is to acquire seedlings by transplanting from forest areas which you have permission to obtain seedlings. Proper tree care while transplanting is essential in order to reduce transplanting tree shock and increase the chances of survival. (The Alaska Cooperative Extension (ACE) has a free publication "Transplanting Trees Successfully" available at your local district Extension office.) A USDA listing of Pacific Northwest nurseries with addresses and contact phone numbers is available from ACE. We also have a 1995 listing of commercial suppliers of tree and shrub seed in the United States from USDA.
Another alternative is to grow your own seedlings from seed. A discussion on growing seedlings from seed will be given in a following newsletter.
by Bob Wheeler
Considerable interest exists for planting trees in yards and home gardens in Alaska that are attractive and produce edible fruit crops for either humans or wildlife. A summary produced for the Georgeson Botanical Garden by Dr. Patricia Holloway, University of Alaska Fairbanks, identifies a number of the common trees that have been successfully planted in the Interior. However, as Dr. Holloway indicates, the choices are few due partially to the need for extreme hardiness of these trees and to the lack of planting stock availability. Because many of the plant catalogs and nurseries in the other states do not stock or list hardy Alaskan varieties, they are very hard to obtain. Dr. Holloway provides the following summary of information on Apples, Chokecherry, Crabapples, and Cherry trees.
Apples (Malus sp.)
Many cultivars of apples have been grown in Interior Alaska, and the most reliable cultivars are a Canadian group whose name begins with Nor: "Norland, Norcue, Norson." These apple trees are hardy but are rarely planted as ornamentals because of the damage caused by moose. These trees require serious protection from moose such as a fence in order to maintain any size. They are best grown in orchards where they can be surrounded by an electrified fence.
Chokecherry (Prunus virginiana)
Small shrubby tree excellent for small yards. Clusters of white flowers bloom in late May or early June, very fragrant. Reddish edible fruit ripens in August. Two cultivars with purple foliage are "Canada Red" and "Shubert" are excellent small landscape trees; foliage is a great contrast to the ubiquitous green. They are sometimes difficult to match with surrounding colors. Plants tend to sucker, especially when young and may be difficult to keep as single stem.
Crabapples (Malus sp., Malus baccata, Malus columbiana)
Beautiful small trees with very large white flowers in June and green to reddish fruit in August. Size and color of fruit varies significantly in seedlings. The species, Malus baccata, is the hardiest crabapple. "Wien" is a large-fruited selection made by Northern Lights Nursery in Fairbanks. It is not as hardy as bacata. Many other cultivars are available, and their success depends on site. They all require a warm site with full sun. "Dolgo", "Trailman", and "Columbis" crabapples all have succeeded at certain locations in Interior Alaska, but they are susceptible to winter injury. The trees are small with stiff branches that are susceptible to breakage from snow loads. Moose love to eat them.
European Bird Cherry (Prunus padus)
The premier "exotic" ornamental for Interior Alaska gardens. A fairly
large, rounded tree, nearly as wide as
tall when fully mature. Plants flower in late May or June and are very fragrant.
The purple fruit is ripe in August and attracts birds, especially robins. The
plant has stiff branches and is susceptible to breakage from snow loads. Large
older branches may die back requiring serious pruning. Older plants tend to
sucker from the base making annual pruning a necessity. The fruit makes great
jelly and wine.
(For more information contact the Alaska Pioneer Fruit Growers' Assoc., Inc. at 1474 Virginia Ct., Anchorage, AK 99501)
I recently met with Claire Lammers at Claire's Cultivations about his varietal testing and production facilities here in Fairbanks, Alaska. The following is a summary of an interview I conducted with Claire during my visit at his orchard facilities.
Q: Through your research and testing, have you found fruit trees that are suited to the growing conditions found in Interior Alaska?
A: Yes, it took a long time to find varieties that would be well suited here in Fairbanks. We have been collecting and growing apples and other fruit varieties for the past 17 years. We have tested about 355 varieties of apples and also are currently evaluating 14 apricot varieties, 20 cherry, nine cherry plums, 27 pear, 24 plums, four nut, five berry, and three saskatoons.
Many of the varieties I have been testing are from Canadian sources and particularly from the Prairie provenances. I also have several of my test varieties being tested by other universities.
Q: Has the weather this year created any problems for flowering?
A: No. It has been a good spring and flowering
has gone well. We did have a lot of wind this year
which resulted in some breakage.
Q: What do you do to ensure pollination?
A: I contract for three bee hives to be placed near my orchard.
Q: Do you have new items that are particularly interesting?
A: New variety: Ivan's Beauty - a cross between Mountain Ash and something else but it is edible. I have been pleased with the three varieties of Saskatoon berry I am testing and am encouraged by the survival but slow growth of a variety of Manchurian walnut.
Q: I understand you use quite a bit of grafting with your operation.
A: It took a long time to find varieties that would be suited here in Fairbanks. I primarily use a cleft graft with a grafting machine. I have about 98 percent survival for bench grafting and top grafts about 85 percent. I have to look at the weather for the following week.
I want it warm the week after a graft. I use a bag on the grafts to further protect them. I start irrigating about the second week of May using drip emitters producing about 1/2 gallon an hour. I have three hives of bees here that assure good pollination.
I wrap a graft with a rubber band and then coat it with paraffin. Then I put a baggy over it and remove it when green leaves appear. For bench graphs I also coat the graft area with bees wax.
Q: What's your favorite apple for the Interior?
A: It used to be Parkland but now is Garland. I also have some good ones coming in PF51 and Norcan. These are more in the Fuji line of apples. My largest apple is about 5 inches in diameter but the best size is around 3 inches.
I collected about 1,200 pounds of apples last year, and I made five batches of wine and a lot of sweet cider. We also sold some of the apples. I won an award for my apple wine. I am interested in getting some more Russian apple varieties from northern latitudes.
New varieties of apple that appear very promising: NorLuv, Norjuice, Norrusset, and Norbil (1 and 2)
Q: What research institutions are you working with?
A: Wisconsin, UAF, and the University of Saskatuan, and from Finland.
Q: For the universities that you are conducting trials for, what do you report?
A: How they survive the winter, if they bloom, if they bear fruit, when they are ripe, and general hardiness.
Q: Do you have any particular environmental or animal problems?
A: I have had several problems with moose. Two moose got into my orchard and destroyed 80 trees before we could get them out. I also recently had to destroy a moose that broke into the orchard and attacked me.
I have some problems with sun scald on young seedlings and lots of problems with voles and rodents. I use poison bait stations to control the rodents. I also use metal collars to protect the seedlings from rodents and weed wacking. Voles don't like pincherry and moose tend to not favor chokecherry. For weeds I use no herbicides and only use manual weeding.
Q: What do you tell people about how to select plants for their property?
A: In order to be successful at growing fruit in the Fairbanks area, it is important to select plant varieties that are suitable for our area. There can be a number of micro-climates in our area. You can create your own micro-climate by planting close to buildings or on a south facing slope. The need for a plant to mature completely before our interior winter sets in, is one of the factors effecting hardiness. In addition to selecting suitable varieties, there are some cultural practices that may be followed which will help increase the number of varieties of plants that you will be able to grow.
Incorrect fertilizer applications and over or under watering are of the most
important practices in growing fruit trees. Never apply fertilizer after June
1. Before applying any kind of fertilizer, you need to have a soil test done.
Over fertilizing or fertilizing too late in the season will encourage the plant
to continue growing too vigorously too late in the season and encourage the
plant to continue growing vigorously, and the hardening of the plant will not
take place in time for the new buds to mature over winter. Fruit trees need
a minimum of 34 inches of rain a year. Do not water your trees after July 1,
unless it is an exceptionally dry season. After the first hard frost, water
generously as this stores nutrients in the roots and greatly improves its ability
to survive. Do not allow dogs to assist the watering. Protect from rodents (mice,
voles and rabbits) with some sort of tree wrap. This wrap needs to be removed
each spring and reinstalled each fall if it's plastic. Protect from moose by
installing a 7 foot fence or by enclosing each tree with a 7 foot barrier of
some sort. If you only
have a few trees, concrete wire mesh is excellent as it is free standing.
Q: Do you have any new items that are particularly interesting or varieties that have not produced well for you?
A: New variety: One of my favorite plants that grows well in our area is Mountain Ash and now there is a new variety hybrid called Ivan's Beauty - a cross between Mountain Ash and something else but the fruit is edible. I have been pleased with the three varieties of Saskatoon berry I am testing and am encouraged by the survival but slow growth of a variety of Manchurian walnut. Unfortunately I find that cherry plum doesn't produce well for me.
by Bob Wheeler
Birch trees in Alaska produce a variety of products including sap for syrup making. This article discusses birch sap and factors that influence sap production.
What is sap?
Birch sap is primarily water and contains about 1 percent sugar. The sugar content of birch sap is approximately 49 percent fructose, 35 percent glucose, and 15 percent sucrose. These sugars are produced by the trees as the result of photosynthesis in the leaves and stored overwinter primarily as starch which is enzymatically converted to sugars in the early spring. A Canadian study found sap pH values ranging from 6.8 - 7.6. Sap also contains growth hormones, minerals, and other compounds.
Various studies on sap flow have been conducted in Alaska and Canada with birch. A commonly asked question is, "How much sap can I expect from a birch tree?" Although the amount of sap flow varies considerably from tree to tree, one study in the Fairbanks area found that sap production averaged 77 pounds (35 kg) per tree.
What direction does the sap flow and how does it get there?
The stem (trunk) of a tree generally contains both heartwood and sapwood. The heartwood is usually seen as the darker wood in the center of the tree trunk. The heartwood is composed of dead cells that serve for both storage and for structural support of the tree. The sapwood, the wood outside of the heartwood, contains both live cells (rays) that store carbohydrates (sugars) and dead hollow cells (vessel cells) that conduct water (about 90 percent of the sapwood are dead cells). The heartwood and sapwood are referred to as xylem tissue. The thin layer of cells between the xylem tissue is the cambial growth layer and the phloem conducting tissue.
Birch tree sap is tapped in the early spring as the buds are beginning to expand. This sap is produced primarily from sapwood (xylem tissue) sap flow. More than 99 percent of all water transported within a birch tree is through the xylem. The phloem also transport sap and serves primarily to transport sugars and growth hormones from the leaves to the lower stem and roots. Phloem sap can flow up or down the tree.
Tree Stem Conducting Tissues: Xylem and Phloem
Xylem: The conducting tissue found in heartwood and sapwood.
The sapwood of birch contains vessel cells that are similar in diameter throughout the growing season. These vessel cells form linked columns that can extend for up to 3 meters. The movement of water through these columns is similar to movement through a cylinder. Generally, the same rules that apply to movement of water through pipes in your house apply to sap flow in the xylem vessel cells of trees. For example, when comparing the water that flows through a pipe under the same amount of water pressure for the same amount of time, a 1 inch diameter pipe will transport less than 1 percent of the water that a 3 inch diameter pipe will. Trees found in areas of severe climatic conditions of winter freezing and drought tend to have relatively small vessel diameters as we find in birch.
Phloem: The conducting tissue found outside the cambial growth layer.
Phloem, like xylem, is produced annually by the cambial layer but is much thinner than the xylem tissue. Horizontal parenchyma ray cells (illustration) provide a means for transporting sugars in the sap from the phloem into the sapwood xylem where it is stored or used for maintenance of the live tissue. The concentration of sugars in the sap in the phloem is generally much greater than that found in the xylem.
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Large white openings are vessel cells. Horizontal bands are parenechyma raycells, and the two vertical bands are annual growth rings. Photo: Provided by permission from the Dept. of Wood & Paper Science, North Carolina State University. |
Sap Flow
Sap flow in trees is primarily controlled by either root pressure or transpirational loss of moisture from the leaves. Before the tree leaves extends from their buds in early spring, root pressure is the primary force causing sap flow. Root pressure results from the uptake of water into the root by osmosis (water flowing from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration through root membranes). Once the leaves are fully extended they begin to loose water vapor which results in creating an internal pumping action and becomes the major force causing sap flow. Only sap produced by root pressure is suited for human consumption due to enzymatic changes in the sap that occurs during transpirational sap flow. The sap collection period usually runs for about one to two weeks depending on local site and trees conditions.
Trees that survive in stressful environments (dry or cold sites) require more sapwood per amount of foliage supported. Birch trees have photosynthetically active bark and are able to conduct photosynthesis even after the leaves are lost in the fall. The bark pealing that we see in Birch is related to the need to be able to exchange carbon dioxide and maintain photosynthetically active cells in the bark.
Fine and Large Root Mass
Trees are believed to distribute the products of photosynthesis (sugars and
starches) on a priority basis. The highest priority for these carbohydrates
is for development of new buds and leaves and for fine root development. There
is great variability of root mass depending upon soil conditions, species, and
environmental factors. The majority of water available to the tree is through
the root system and especially the small diameter roots and root hairs. These
fine roots have relatively short lives, a few days to a few weeks, and are very
sensitive to changes in environmental conditions. Having a large, fine root
mass provides a large surface area for absorption of water and nutrients. As
the time for sap flow approaches in the early spring, having a healthy and
extensive root system is a very important factor in determining sap flow.
Intense competition for available water by trees growing in close proximity to each other can reduce sap flow. Also, the amount of stored sugars in the roots will influence the osmotic uptake of water. The concentration of these sugars is influenced by the number of leaves and the quantity of sugars delivered to the roots for storage. Trees suffering stress such as caused by insects or disease may reduce the concentration of sugars in the roots which can reduce initial sap flow from root pressure. Cold soil temperatures will inhibit fine root growth and water uptake.
A program developed by the Alaska Boreal Forest Council, Director Jan Dawe
Tapping into local interest about birch tree products and the need for community education, the Alaska Boreal Forest Council initiated a program called "Tapping Into Spring" (TIS) in 1998. This program was seen as a way to raise residents' awareness about a unique renewable resource - birch sap. Council Intern Dan Stein worked with 14 families and one elementary school within a 30-mile radius of Fairbanks during the month-long tapping season (essentially the entire month of April 1998). Jeff Weltzin's Original Birch Syrup Company later produced 7.5 gallons of birch syrup from the 600 gallons of sap collected from 90 trees.
This year the ABFC chose to focus on developing TIS to meet educational and curriculum-building values as a Fairbanks North Star Borough School District "Partners in Science" pilot project. Pearl Creek Elementary School teachers Deb Wilkinson (grades 4-6) and Mary Short (grade 2) teamed up with Council interns Curt Gervich, Sunna Fesler, and Jan Dawe to develop an experimental boreal forest curriculum using the activities of tapping birch trees and making birch syrup as a window into the ecology and economy of the Interior forest.
For students TIS-99 provided a means to 1) gain an understanding of the scientific process, 2) have fun and be creative while learning how birch syrup is made, 3) become experienced in collecting, interpreting and presenting accurate data, and 4) share their developing expertise about their tree with others. For teachers TIS-99 provided an opportunity to develop a multi-task team activity using students' different learning styles as its building blocks. For volunteers TIS-99 was a way to build community through teacher-student-volunteer interactions.
At its heart TIS-99 was a community affair. Foresters, scientists, and land managers from the Tanana Chiefs Conference, U.S. Weather Bureau, Alaska Fire Service, University of Alaska's School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management's Forest Sciences Department, Alaska Cooperative Extension, and the Long-term Ecological Research Program participated - providing the students with background information on subjects as diverse as plant physiology, forest ecology, silviculture, meteorology, soil science, and fire management. Parents and graduate students supervised daily data collection to ensure its accuracy and repeatability.
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| Students from Pearl Creek Elementary collecting sap. Photo taken by Douglas Yates. |
The study plot for the TIS-99 program was a stand of birch trees screening Pearl Creek school from Auburn Road in Fairbanks. Each student chose his or her "own" tree and collected sap at the same time each day. The students then considered their tree's production against its baseline information, including tree height, diameter, live crown ratio, distance to nearest neighbor, and location in the stand. Students found that sap production was correlated with an individual tree's height, diameter, and position in the stand. They found that intermediate-sized trees in the middle of the stand and along the road edge were generally the "champion" producers, while trees bordering the school lawn produced significantly less sap. With this preliminary data in mind, students have begun designing new experiments for TIS-2000. They want to understand why the trees bordering the school lawn produced less sap: does the grass "steal" moisture from the tree roots? To look at this question, they'll begin monitoring soil moisture and temperature this fall. They also want to understand more about birch tree regeneration. Does their tree's identity as an individual stem or member of a stem sprout "family" influence its sap production? Finally, students will resample the same trees so they can gain an appreciation of how sap flow varies from year to year.
TIS has become a true community collaborative process involving the school district, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, state and federal agencies, a Native corporation, and two local entrepreneurs. Working together, the collaboration has created a NEW non-timber forest product: Boreal Bliss ice cream. Word on the street has it that this sweet, cream-based birch syrup and low bush cranberry-flavored ice cream is a real hit and locally very difficult to obtain due to the high demand.
For more information about TIS and its plans for the millennium, please contact the Council after August 15, at (907) 457-8453 or by e-mailing them at <abfc@ptialaska.net>.
Contact: Ted Laufenberg, USDA Forest Service, Sitka, AK (907) 747-4349
The Alaska Wood Utilization R&D Center, USDA FS, in Sitka, Alaska, is sponsoring a forest products workshop September 27-28, 1999. The event, "Linking Healthy Forests and Communities Through Value-Added Alaskan Forest Products," will bring together technical specialists and exhibitors from the forest products industry, associations, universities, and state and federal agencies.
Sessions include panel discussions on linking healthy forests, communities, and industries; accessing future forest potential; and enhancing value in lumber, engineered timber products, processing of finished wood products, and special (non-timber) forest products.
"This is the first event the Alaska Wood Utilization R&D Center has sponsored," says Ted Laufenberg, Center director. "This workshop will set the stage for developing a strong research and development program for this new Center. We see this as an opportunity to work with community partners to identify and evaluate the opportunities for a viable forest products industry in Alaska.
More than 40 speakers and ten panels will be featured during the two-day event. The event is being co-hosted by the Pacific Northwest Research Station and Region 10 of the Forest Service. A preliminary listing of sponsors includes the Wood Products Development Service, University of Alaska, Alaska Cooperative Extension, USDA-FS Forest Products Laboratory, Industry Network Corporation and the Alaska Science and Technology Foundation.
An evening reception will include an exhibit of value-added forest products and services from manufacturers and artisans from Alaska. The Alaska Wood Utilization R&D Center opened in Sitka in February 1999. Congress directed its creation to help develop partnerships that build on "value-added" activities that may provide a durable mix of employment, profits, and forest products industry in Alaska. The Center is a part of the USDA Forest Services Portland-based Pacific Northwest Research Station. The Station is one of nine Forest Service research facilities.
To learn more about the value-added Alaska forest products workshop, call (907)
474-4309 or http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw
The University of Alaska Fairbanks Cooperative Extension Service programs are available to all, without regard to race, color, age, sex, creed, national origin, or disability and in accordance with all applicable federal laws. Provided in furtherance of Cooperative Extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Anthony T. Nakazawa, Director, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Alaska Fairbanks.
